“Negro-African” literature - a body of literary texts written in French by Africans and those of African and Caribbean descent - arose between 1930 and 1940, in the wake of the first African-American and African emancipation movements and the advent of specialized literary journals. After World War II, a literature of protest appeared with the journal, Présence africaine (African Presence). At the same time, the African novel developed in response to the anti-colonial policies that preceded independence. After 1960, African literature described the internal problems of new African countries. From 1985 to 2005, a change of focus saw literary accounts of the gradual deterioration of these countries' social, political and economic structures under dictatorship. In the 21st century, authors have emerged who wanted to free themselves from African chaos in order to take on a “world-class” and purely literary identity.