The Mwami and the land in the Great Lakes region

The Mwami plays a central role in land governance across the Kivus, where land is inseparable from ethnic identity and political legitimacy. The Kalinzi contract — a payment made to the sovereign in exchange for land use rights — is the cornerstone of the Shi and Havu tenure system, now increasingly monetised under demographic pressure. While customary chiefs genuinely contribute to mediation and dispute resolution, abuses — illegal land sales, biased allocations, extortionate fees — are fuelling growing social tensions and contestation. Since 2025, the M23 has been deliberately targeting chieftaincies, replacing legitimate Bami with political nominees to destabilise local social and land governance. The late-2025 legislative reform introduces real advances (customary possession certificates, cadastral digitisation), but remains unenforceable without peace and a functioning state on the ground.